ORGANIC COUMPUNDS OF LIFE

Carbohydrates Almost all organisms use carbohydrates as sources of energy. In addition, some carbohydrates serve as structural materials. Carbohydrates are molecules composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; the ratio of hydrogen atoms to oxygen atoms is 2:1. Simple carbohydrates, commonly referred to as sugars, can be monosaccharides if they are composed of single molecules, or disaccharides if they are composed of two molecules. The most important monosaccharide is glucose, a carbohydrate with the molecular formula C6H12O6. Glucose is the basic form of fuel in living things. It is soluble and is transported by body fluids to all cells, where it is metabolized to release its energy. Glucose is the starting material for cellular respiration, and it is the main product of photosynthesis. Three important disaccharides are also found in living things: maltose, sucrose, and lactose. Maltose is a combination of two glucose units covalently linked. The table sugar sucrose is formed by linking glucose to another monosaccharide called fructose. (Figure 1 shows that in the synthesis of sucrose, a water molecule is produced. The process is therefore called a dehydration. The reversal of the process is hydrolysis, a process in which the molecule is split and the elements of water are added.) Lactose is composed of glucose and galactose units. Complex carbohydrates are known as polysaccharides. Polysaccharides are formed by linking innumerable monosaccharides. Among the most important polysaccharides are the starches, which are composed of hundreds or thousands of glucose units linked to one another. Starches serve as a storage form for carbohydrates. Much of the world's human population satisfies its energy needs with the starches of rice, wheat, corn, and potatoes. Two other important polysaccharides are glycogen and cellulose. Glycogen is also composed of thousands of glucose units, but the units are bonded in a different pattern than in starches. Glycogen is the form in which glucose is stored in the human liver. Cellulose is used primarily as a structural carbohydrate. It is also composed of glucose units, but the units cannot be released from one another except by a few species of organisms. Wood is composed chiefly of cellulose, as are plant cell walls. Cotton fabric and paper are commercial cellulose products. These plants and their flowers are made up of a mixture of carbohydrates that were manufactured from carbon dioxide and water, with the energy of sunlight. The simplest of the carbohydrates are the monosaccharides, simple sugars (fruit sugar) that the plant synthesizes. Food is stored as starches, which are polysaccharides made from the simpler monosaccharides. The plant structure is held upright by fibers of cellulose, another form of a polysaccharide.

essential aromatic compounds

Characteristics of aromatic compounds 1. A delocalized conjugated π system, most commonly an arrangement of alternating single and double bonds 2. Coplanar structure, with all the contributing atoms in the same plane 3. Contributing atoms arranged in one or more rings Aromatic hydrocarbons are a special class of cyclic compounds that are usually described as a ring of six with a single bond and a double bond bersilih changed. The group is classified separately from acyclic and aliphatic hydrocarbons because of its unique physical and chemical properties Kekulé structures filed six ring structure with three double bonds are berkojugasi and always moving (resonate) An aromatic compound containing a benzene ring. Naming aromatic compounds are not directly as in the carbon chain. Often more than one name is acceptable and not rare if the old name is still used. All aromatic compounds based on benzene, C6H6, which has six carbon Group aromatic group attached to a benzene ring. Cases where the name is based on benzene Klorobenzen This is a simple example where a halogen attached to the benzene ring. Naming is very clear. The simplified formula C6H5Cl. So you could (although maybe not!) Named fenilklorida. Any if you draw a benzene ring with something attached to it you actually draw phenyl. To tie something you have to throw a hydrogen to produce phenyl. Nitrobenzen Nitro classes, NO2, benzene attached to the chain. The simplified formula C6H5NO2. Metilbenzen One more obvious name. Benzene with methyl attached to it. Alkyl group are also follow the naming sama.Contoh, etilbenzen. The old name of metilbenzen is toluene, you may still see it. The simplified formula C6H5CH3. (Chloromethyl) benzene Variations of metilbensen where one hydrogen atom is replaced with a chloride atom. Notice the sign in parentheses, (chloromethyl). This is so that you can understand that chlorine is a methyl group and not part of the ring. If more than one hydrogen replaced by chlorine, naming would be (diklorometil) benzene or (triklorometil) benzene. Once again note the importance of brackets. benzoic acid (acid benzenecarboxylic) Benzoic acid is the old name, but still in common use is easier said and written. Whatever it is called there is a carboxylic acid,-COOH, bound to a benzene ring.

HYDROCARBON DERIVATIVE

In the oxidation of hydrocarbon derivatives contained alcohol modest alcohol forming flammable gases such as carbon dioxide and water vapor. therefore, ethanol is used as fuel (spiritus) With oxidizing substances were as K2Cr2O7 solution in an acidic environment, alcohol is oxidized as follows: 1. primary alcohols to form aldehydes and can be further oxidized to form a carboxylic acid 2. secondary alcohols form ketones 3. Tertiary alcohols are not oxidized Alcohol oxidation is an important organic reaction. Primary alcohols (R-CH2-OH) can be oxidized either to aldehydes (R-CHO) or to carboxylic acids (R-CO2H), while the oxidation of secondary alcohols (R1R2CH-OH) normally terminates at the ketone (R1R2C=O) stage. Tertiary alcohols (R1R2R3C-OH) are resistant to oxidation. The direct oxidation of primary alcohols to carboxylic acids normally proceeds via the corresponding aldehyde, which is transformed via an aldehyde hydrate (R-CH(OH)2) by reaction with water before it can be further oxidized to the carboxylic acid. Often it is possible to interrupt the oxidation of a primary alcohol at the aldehyde level by performing the reaction in absence of water, so that no aldehyde hydrate can be formed. Oxidation to aldehydes Reagents useful for the transformation of primary alcohols to aldehydes are normally also suitable for the oxidation of secondary alcohols to ketones. These include: * Chromium-based reagents, such as Collins reagent (CrO3·Py2), PDC or PCC. * Activated DMSO, resulting from reaction of DMSO with electrophiles, such as oxalyl chloride (Swern oxidation), a carbodiimide (Pfitzner-Moffatt oxidation) or the complex SO3·Py (Parikh-Doering oxidation). * Hypervalent iodine compounds, such as Dess-Martin periodinane or 2-Iodoxybenzoic acid. * Catalytic TPAP in presence of excess of NMO (Ley oxidation). * Catalytic TEMPO in presence of excess bleach (NaOCl) (Anelli's oxidation). Allylic and benzylic alcohols can be oxidized in presence of other alcohols using certain selective oxidants such as manganese dioxide (MnO2). Oxidation of secondary alcohols to ketones Reagents useful for the oxidation of secondary alcohols to ketones, but normally inefficient for oxidation of primary alcohols to aldehydes, include chromium trioxide (CrO3) in a mixture of sulfuric acid and acetone (Jones oxidation) and certain ketones, such as cyclohexanone, in the presence of aluminium isopropoxide (Oppenauer oxidation). Another method is oxoammonium-catalyzed oxidation. Oxidation of primary alcohols to carboxylic acids The direct oxidation of primary alcohols to carboxylic acids can be carried out using: * Potassium permanganate (KMnO4). * Jones oxidation. * PDC in DMF. * Heyns oxidation. * Ruthenium tetroxide (RuO4). Alcohol dehydration If alcohol is heated with concentrated sulfuric acid will dehydrate (remove the water molecules) to form ethers and alkenes. Heating at a temperature of about 130 degrees Celsius produce ether, whereas at temperatures of about 180 degrees Celsius produces alkenes

why carbon can form chain 1,2,3?

Carbon (C) appears in the 2nd row of the periodic table and has atomic number of 6. Given our discussion of electron shells it is easy to see that carbon has 4 electrons in its valence shell. Since carbon needs 8 electrons to fill its valence shell, it forms 4 bonds with other atoms (each bond consisting of one of carbon's electrons and one of the bonding atom's). Every valence electron participates in bonding, thus a carbon atom's bonds will be distributed evenly over the atom's surface. An organic molecule (hydrocarbon) is formed when carbon bonds to hydrogen. The simplest hydrocarbon consists of 4 hydrogen atoms bonded to a carbon atom (called methane). in fact, there appears to be almost no limit to the number of different structures that carbon can form. To add to the complexity of organic chemistry, neighboring carbon atoms can form double and triple bonds in addition to single carbon-carbon bonds. each carbon atom has 4 bonds. As you add carbon to a molecule, the empty carbon bonds are filled with hydrogen atoms (or other elements, as we will soon see). You can calculate the number of H atoms in the simple alkanes. The number of H atoms in a simple alkane equals two times the number of carbon atoms plus 2, or (2n + 2), where n is the number of carbon atoms in the molecule. The simple alkenes have 1 double bond and 2 fewer H atoms in the molecule; the number of H atoms in the simple alkenes = (2n). Simple alkynes contain 1 triple bond 2 fewer H atoms than the alkene, or (2n - 2) H atoms. The simple hydrocarbons are fairly common. Methane, for example, is released by decaying organic matter and is the main compound in natural gas. These chemicals are generally gases or liquids in nature and are very flammable. Butane is used in cigarette lighters. Ethyne, also known as acetylene, is used in welding. In addition to carbon and hydrogen, hydrocarbons can also contain other elements. The alcohols, for example, are a group of hydrocarbons in which a hydroxol (-OH) group is bound to a carbon skeleton. These compounds are named like the simple hydrocarbons, a prefix attached to a root ending (-anol for the alcohols).